TY  - BOOK
AU  - Feiner, Gerhard
AU  - Gibney, Michael J 
TI  - Meat products handbook: Practical science and technology 
SN  - 13: 978-1-84569-172-1
U1  - e-book (FST) 
PY  - 2006///
CY  - England
PB  - Woodhead publishing limited
N2  - Contents
Preface ................................................................................................... xv
Acknowledgements ................................................................................ xvii
Disclaimer ............................................................................................ xix
List of abbreviations ............................................................................. xxi
Part I Meat composition and additives ............................................ 1
1 The protein and fat content of meat ........................................ 3
1.1 Amino acids ....................................................................... 4
1.2 Proteins .............................................................................. 7
1.3 Collagen ............................................................................. 9
1.4 Muscle physiology ............................................................ 10
1.5 Flavour of meat ................................................................. 15
1.6 Principles of muscle contraction and relaxation .............. 18
1.7 Enzymes in meat ............................................................... 20
1.8 Fat....................................................................................... 21
1.9 Rancidity of fat .................................................................. 27
1.10 Low-density lipoprotein and high-density lipoprotein
cholesterol .......................................................................... 31
1.11 Nutritional value of meat and other protein-rich food .... 32
2 The biochemistry of meat .......................................................... 33
2.1 Biochemical processes in meat pre-slaughter .................. 33
2.2 Biochemical processes in meat post-slaughter
(rigor mortis) ..................................................................... 38
3 The tenderness of fresh meat .................................................... 42
3.1 Ageing of meat for enhancing tenderness ........................ 42
3.2 Enzymes used for enhancing the tenderness of meat ...... 45
4 Definitions of terms used in meat science and technology .... 46
4.1 Pale soft exudative (PSE) meat, red soft exudative (RSE)
meat, dry firm dark (DFD) meat and ‘normal’ meat ....... 46
v
vi Contents
4.2 Mechanically deboned meat and mechanically separated
meat .................................................................................... 50
4.3 Hot boning of meat: ‘warm-meat effect’ ......................... 53
4.4 Thaw rigor ......................................................................... 54
4.5 Cold shortening ................................................................. 55
4.6 Electrical stimulation ......................................................... 57
4.7 Freezing and thawing of meat .......................................... 58
4.8 Freezer burning .................................................................. 64
4.9 pH value ............................................................................. 65
4.10 Aw value (water activity) ................................................... 66
4.11 Eh value (redox potential) ................................................. 67
4.12 Condensation water ........................................................... 68
4.13 Maillard reaction ............................................................... 70
4.14 Caramelization ................................................................... 70
4.15 Conductivity of meat ......................................................... 71
5 Additives: phosphates, salts (sodium chloride and
potassium chloride, citrate, lactate) and hydrocolloids ......... 72
5.1 Phosphates ......................................................................... 73
5.2 Salts (sodium chloride and potassium chloride, citrate,
lactate) ................................................................................ 77
5.3 Hydrocolloids .................................................................... 83
6 Additives: proteins, carbohydrates, fillers and other
additives ........................................................................................ 89
6.1 Proteins .............................................................................. 89
6.2 Carbohydrates .................................................................... 98
6.3 Fillers: maltodextrin, flour, wheat fibre, konjac, cereal
binder and rusk .................................................................. 109
6.4 Preservatives in meat products ......................................... 112
6.5 Monosodium glutamate ..................................................... 115
6.6 Ribonucleotide and other flavour enhancers .................... 116
6.7 Water .................................................................................. 116
6.8 Spices and spice extracts .................................................. 118
6.9 Hydrolysed vegetable protein ........................................... 122
6.10 Antioxidants ....................................................................... 123
6.11 Natural smoke .................................................................... 125
6.12 Liquid smoke ..................................................................... 129
6.13 Colours in meat products .................................................. 131
6.14 Whitening (bleaching) of meat ......................................... 133
6.15 Glucono-d-lactone ............................................................. 134
6.16 Citric acid .......................................................................... 134
6.17 Emulsifiers in meat products ............................................ 135
6.18 Alginate for re-formed meat ............................................. 137
6.19 Enzymes for re-formed meat and other meat
products .............................................................................. 138
Contents vii
6.20 Blood-derived products for re-formed meat ..................... 139
6.21 Allergens in meat products ............................................... 139
7 Colour in fresh meat and in cured meat products ................. 142
7.1 Retention of colour in fresh meat and uncured meat
products .............................................................................. 142
7.2 Nitrite and nitrate .............................................................. 147
7.3 Mechanism of colour development in cured meat
products .............................................................................. 150
7.4 Colour enhancers ............................................................... 153
7.5 Measuring colour: the L*–a*–b* system ......................... 156
Part II Technologies for particular meat products ........................ 159
8 Whole-muscle brine-injected products .................................... 161
8.1 Selection and preparation of raw materials ...................... 162
8.2 Selection of additives ........................................................ 166
8.3 Calculating brine composition and injection levels ......... 175
8.4 Manufacturing technology ................................................ 178
8.5 Summary of critical production issues ............................. 209
9 Typical whole-muscle brine-injected products from around
the world ...................................................................................... 211
9.1 Bacon (Australia) .............................................................. 211
9.2 Bacon (New Zealand) ....................................................... 212
9.3 Cooked ham on the bone (Australia) ............................... 213
9.4 Champagne ham (Australia) ............................................. 214
9.5 Master ham (Austria) ........................................................ 214
9.6 Kasseler (Austria and Germany) ...................................... 215
9.7 Virginia ham (Australia) ................................................... 215
9.8 Bacon (England) ................................................................ 216
9.9 Bacon (USA) ..................................................................... 217
9.10 Pastrami (USA and Australia) ........................................... 217
9.11 Roast pork (Australia) ....................................................... 218
9.12 Beef bacon ......................................................................... 219
10 Re-formed products: non-injection methods for adding
brine .............................................................................................. 220
10.1 Selection and preparation of raw materials ...................... 221
10.2 Selection of additives ........................................................ 222
10.3 Manufacturing technology ................................................ 224
10.4 Summary of critical production issues ............................. 232
11 Typical re-formed products from around the world using
non-injection methods for adding brine .................................. 234
11.1 Sandwich ham (Australia) ................................................. 234
11.2 Chicken loaf ....................................................................... 235
11.3 Delicates ham (Austria) .................................................... 237
viii Contents
12 Cooked sausages .......................................................................... 239
12.1 Selection of raw materials ................................................. 240
12.2 Production and use of pork or chicken skin emulsion
in cooked sausages ............................................................ 246
12.3 Production and use of fat emulsion in cooked sausages . 249
12.4 Selection of additives ........................................................ 251
12.5 Manufacturing technology ................................................ 257
12.6 Emulsifying in a grinder–emulsifier system .................... 273
12.7 Filling ................................................................................. 276
12.8 Smoking, cooking and cooling ......................................... 278
12.9 Slicing, packing and storage ............................................. 283
12.10 Summary of critical production issues ............................. 285
13 Typical cooked sausage products from around the world .... 287
13.1 Frankfurters (Austria and Germany) ................................ 287
13.2 Frankfurters (Philippines) ................................................. 287
13.3 Frankfurters (South Africa) ............................................... 288
13.4 Frankfurters (Malaysia) ..................................................... 289
13.5 Chicken sausage with oil .................................................. 289
13.6 Cooked bratwurst .............................................................. 290
13.7 Hunter sausage................................................................... 291
13.8 Beer ham (Germany) ......................................................... 291
13.9 Luncheon meat (Australia) ............................................... 292
13.10 Weisswurst (Bavarian white sausage) (Germany) ........... 292
13.11 Mortadella (Italy) .............................................................. 293
13.12 Low-fat frankfurters .......................................................... 294
13.13 Bavarian meat loaf (Austria and Germany) ..................... 294
13.14 Meatballs (Asia) ................................................................ 295
14 Fresh sausages ............................................................................. 297
14.1 Selection of raw materials ................................................ 298
14.2 Selection of additives ........................................................ 299
14.3 Manufacturing technology ................................................ 302
14.4 Summary of critical production issues ............................. 309
15 Typical fresh sausage products from around the world ........ 310
15.1 Nuremberg bratwurst (Germany) ...................................... 310
15.2 Boerewors (South Africa) ................................................. 311
15.3 Barbecue sausage (Australia) ............................................ 311
15.4 Chicken sausage (Australia) ............................................. 312
15.5 Merguez (France) .............................................................. 312
15.6 Cumberland sausage (Great Britain) ................................ 312
15.7 English breakfast sausages (Great Britain) ...................... 313
16 Raw fermented salami ................................................................ 314
16.1 Selection of raw materials ................................................ 315
16.2 Selection of additives and starter cultures ....................... 322
Contents ix
16.3 Manufacturing technology ................................................ 334
16.4 Summary of critical production issues ............................. 375
17 Typical raw fermented salami products from around the
world ............................................................................................ 376
17.1 Hungarian salami ............................................................... 376
17.2 Kantwurst (Austria) ........................................................... 377
17.3 Lup cheong (PR China) .................................................... 378
17.4 Cacciatore (Italy) ............................................................... 379
17.5 Milano salami (Italy) ......................................................... 379
17.6 Summer sausage (USA) .................................................... 380
17.7 Sucuk (Turkey) .................................................................. 380
17.8 Chorizo (Spain) ................................................................. 381
17.9 Fuet (Spain) ....................................................................... 381
17.10 Pepperoni (USA) ............................................................... 381
18 Semicooked and fully cooked fermented salami ..................... 383
18.1 Manufacturing technology for semicooked fermented
salami ................................................................................. 383
18.2 Manufacturing technology for fully cooked fermented
salami ................................................................................. 384
19 Non-fermented salami ................................................................ 386
19.1 Selection and preparation of raw materials ...................... 386
19.2 Selection of additives ........................................................ 387
19.3 Manufacturing technology ................................................ 388
19.4 Summary of critical production issues ............................. 395
20 Typical non-fermented salami products from around
the world ...................................................................................... 396
20.1 Polish salami (Austria) ...................................................... 396
20.2 Cheese salami (Austria) .................................................... 397
20.3 Kransky (Slovenia) ............................................................ 397
20.4 Vienna salami (Austria) .................................................... 398
20.5 Cabana (or cabanossi) (Austria and Australia) ................ 398
21 Spreadable raw fermented sausage .......................................... 400
21.1 Selection of raw materials ................................................ 400
21.2 Selection of additives ........................................................ 402
21.3 Manufacturing technology ................................................ 404
21.4 Summary of critical production issues ............................. 413
22 Typical raw fermented sausage products from around
the world ...................................................................................... 414
22.1 Teewurst (finely cut tea sausage) (Austria and
Germany) ........................................................................... 414
22.2 Coarse onion mettwurst (Austria and Germany) ............. 415
x Contents
23 Cured air-dried meat products ................................................. 417
23.1 Selection and preparation of raw materials ...................... 417
23.2 Selection of additives ........................................................ 420
23.3 Manufacturing technology ................................................ 422
23.4 Summary of critical production issues ............................. 441
24 Typical cured air-dried meat products from around
the world ...................................................................................... 442
24.1 Parma ham (Italy) .............................................................. 442
24.2 Pancetta (Italy) .................................................................. 444
24.3 Parma coppa (Italy) ........................................................... 444
24.4 Black Forest ham (Germany)............................................ 445
24.5 Serano ham (Spain) ........................................................... 445
24.6 Biltong (South Africa) ....................................................... 446
24.7 Pastirma (Turkey) .............................................................. 447
24.8 Bündner fleisch (dried beef ‘bündner style’)
(Switzerland)...................................................................... 447
24.9 Beef jerky (USA) .............................................................. 448
24.10 Rou gan and shafu (PR China) ......................................... 449
25 Spreadable liver sausage and liver pâté .................................. 451
25.1 Selection and preparation of raw materials ...................... 451
25.2 Selection of additives ........................................................ 457
25.3 Manufacturing technology using precooked hot
materials (conventional method) ...................................... 459
25.4 Production of liver pâté..................................................... 472
25.5 Summary of critical production issues for liver sausage ... 474
26 Typical spreadable liver sausage and liver pâté products
from around the world ............................................................... 476
26.1 Fine veal liver sausage (Austria) ...................................... 476
26.2 Fine liver sausage (Austria and Germany) ....................... 477
26.3 Coarse liver sausage (Austria and Germany) ................... 477
26.4 Fine liver sausage (Russia and South Africa) .................. 477
26.5 Coarse brandy liver pâté in a pastry cover ...................... 478
26.6 Fine pepper–chicken liver pâté in a mould ...................... 478
26.7 Pâté de campagne (France) ............................................... 479
26.8 Pâté de viande (France) ..................................................... 479
26.9 Rillete porc et oie (France) ............................................... 479
26.10 Pâté de Bretons (France) ................................................... 480
27 Burgers, patties and crumbed products .................................. 481
27.1 Selection of raw materials ................................................ 482
27.2 Selection of additives ........................................................ 483
27.3 Manufacturing technology ................................................ 486
27.4 Summary of critical production issues ............................. 491
27.5 Crumbed products ............................................................. 492
Contents xi
28 Typical patty and nugget products from around the
world ............................................................................................. 499
28.1 Beef patty ........................................................................... 499
28.2 Chicken patty ..................................................................... 499
28.3 Chicken nuggets (high quality) ......................................... 500
28.4 Chicken nuggets (low cost) ............................................... 500
29 Sliceable and non-sliceable blood sausage .................. 502
29.1 Selection and preparation of raw materials ................. 502
29.2 Selection of additives ................................................. 505
29.3 Manufacturing technology for sliceable blood sausage .. 506
29.4 Manufacturing technology for non-sliceable blood
sausage ............................................................................... 512
29.5 Summary of critical production issues in the production
of sliceable blood sausage ................................................ 514
30 Typical blood sausage products from around the world .. 516
30.1 Thüringian blood sausage (Germany) ...................... 516
30.2 Blood–tongue sausage (Austria) ............................... 517
30.3 Black pudding (England) ............................................ 517
30.4 Black pudding (Austria) .............................................. 518
31 Brawn and meat jellies .................................................. 519
31.1 Selection and preparation of raw materials ................ 520
31.2 Selection of additives ................................................. 522
31.3 Manufacturing technology for brawn ......................... 523
31.4 Manufacturing technology for meat jellies .................. 528 31.5 Summary of critical production issues in the production
of brawn .         ................................................................ 529
32 Typical brawn and meat jellies from around the world .....530
32.1 Presswurst (brawn) (Austria) ....................................... 530
32.2 Farmer’s brawn (Austria and Germany) .......................531
32.3 Meat jellies ................................................................. 531
32.4 Chicken meat jelly (handmade) ................................. 532
33 Canned retorted corned beef ..................................................... 533
33.1 Selection of raw materials for corned beef using
uncured semicooked meat ................................................. 533
33.2 Precooking and blanching .......................................... 534
33.3 Mixing and filling (uncured meat) ............................... 535
33.4 The retorting process ................................................. 536
33.5 Selection of raw materials for corned beef utilizing
precured cooked meat ....................................................... 540
33.6 Precuring and cooking of meat .................................. 541
33.7 Mixing and filling (cured meat) ................................... 541
33.8 The retorting process ................................................... 542
34 Moisture-enhanced (case-ready) and marinated meat .......... 543
34.1 Selection of raw materials ................................................. 544
34.2 Selection of additives ................................................. 545
34.3 Manufacturing technology .......................................... 546
34.4 Marination of meat ..................................................... 548
35 Casings and packaging material ............................................... 552
35.1 Natural casings .................................................................. 552
35.2 Cellulose casings ......................................................... 556
35.3 Collagen casings ......................................................... 557
35.4 Waterproof (non-permeable) casings .......................... 558
35.5 Non-waterproof (permeable) casings ............................... 559
35.6 Different packaging materials ........................................... 561
Part III Quality and safety issues ....................................... 563
36 Sensory evaluation of meat products ........................... 565
36.1 Ways of evaluating meat products ............................ 565
36.2 Triangular tests and competition evaluations ................... 566
37 The hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) in
meat-processing companies............................................... 569
37.1 Hazard analysis critical control point in the supply
chain ......................................................................... 570
37.2 Key elements in hazard analysis critical control point
systems ............................................................................... 571
38 Introduction to the microbiology of meat and meat
products ........................................................................................ 574
38.1 Classification and naming of microorganisms ............. 575
38.2 Endotoxins versus exotoxins............................................. 576
38.3 Temperature tolerance of microorganisms ....................... 577
38.4 Oxygen tolerance of microorganisms .......................... 578
38.5 Optimal pH value in meat for bacterial growth .......... 580
38.6 Minimum Aw needed for bacterial growth ....................... 580
38.7 Growth curve of bacteria .................................................. 582
38.8 Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria ..................... 583
38.9 Microbiological spoilage of meat and meat products ..... 583
38.10 The hurdle principle in the production of meat and meat
products .............................................................................. 590
39 The microbiology of specific bacteria ...................................... 595
39.1 Flagella in bacteria ............................................................ 595
39.2 Spore formation in bacteria .............................................. 596
39.3 Family Micrococcaceae ..................................................... 597
39.4 Family Streptococcaceae ................................................... 600
39.5 Family Enterobacteriaceae ................................................ 601
39.6 Family Pseudomonadaceae ............................................... 604
xii Contents
39.7 Family Bacillaceae ............................................................ 604
39.8 Family Lactobacillaceae .................................................... 607
39.9 Family Aeromonadaceae ................................................... 608
39.10 Family Spirillaceae ............................................................ 609
39.11 Family Listeriaceae ........................................................... 609
39.12 Fungi in meat products ..................................................... 610
39.13 Bovine spongiform encephalopathy and other
transmissible spongiform encephalopathies ..................... 614
40 Predictive microbiology for meat products ............................. 616
40.1 F-value calculations and shelf life ................................... 617
40.2 F-value calculations for pasteurized products ................. 621
40.3 F-value calculations for retorted products ....................... 624
Index ...................................................................................................... 629
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